Bilingual helps beyond just communication

Speaking two languages can be handy when traveling abroad, applying for jobs, and working with international colleagues, but how does bilingualism influence the way we think? In the current issue of Psychological Science in the Public Interest, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, Ellen Bialystok (York University), Fergus I.M. Craik (Rotman Research Institute), David W. Green (University College London), and Tamar H. Gollan (University of California, San Diego) review the latest research on bilingualism and ways in which knowing two languages can change brain function, even affecting brain areas not directly involved in communication.

Children learning two languages from birth achieve the same basic milestones (e.g., their first word) as monolinguals do, but they may use different strategies for language acquisition. Although bilinguals tend to have smaller vocabularies in each language than do children who know one language, bilinguals may have an advantage when it comes to certain nonverbal cognitive tasks. Bilinguals tend to perform better than monolinguals on exercises that require blocking out distractions and switching between two or more different tasks. The authors note that “when a bilingual speaks two languages regularly, speaking in just one of these languages requires use of the control network to limit interference from the other language and to ensure the continued dominance of the intended language.” The bilingual advantage in attention and cognitive control may have important, long-term benefits. Preliminary evidence even suggests that their increased use of these systems may protect bilinguals against Alzheimer’s.

source:brain mysteries

Boosting productivity without additional capital

Employers are constantly looking for innovative ways to motivate their workforce. “Self-efficacy,” a typical technique, involves improving employees’ confidence in their abilities so that they expect greater success. This motivates them to exert greater effort and leads to better performance.

But according to organizational psychologist Prof. Dov Eden of Tel Aviv University’s Faculty of Management, this is only part of the motivational package. Employees must feel confident not only in their own abilities, but also with the tools available to them to accomplish their task, whether those tools are computer software, particular office products or even their co-workers. He calls his new concept “means efficacy,” and it can significantly impact workers’ motivation and the effort they exert to complete the task at hand.

His approach was presented as a chapter in the book Work Motivation in the Context of a Globalizing Economy (Lawrence Erlbaum).

The best of the best

To put means efficacy into action, says Prof. Eden, you need to convince the target group that they have the best tools available. To test the effectiveness of the concept, he and his fellow researchers conducted two controlled experiments.

In the first experiment, Prof. Eden introduced the same computer system to two groups in a large governmental organization in Israel. For one group, the new computer system was put into effect without commentary. The second group, on the other hand, was given positive information about their system ― they were told it was the best system available, tested in the U.S. and improved for their benefit.

The second experiment took place in a university setting, in which half a class of several hundred physics students were told they had access to the best possible course site ― the same course site as the other half, which received no such characterization.

The results, notes Prof. Eden, were outstanding. In the governmental organization, the experimental group, which believed they had a superior computer system, increased their information processing time by fifty percent compared to the control group, which did not increase their processing time at all. The physics students showed an increase as well ― those who were told they had a superior course site scored 5% higher as a final grade for their course.

Stamping out the negatives

A good manager, says Prof. Eden, knows how to get out and talk to his workers. He should be able to talk to employees about the tools of the workplace and encourage enthusiasm. Workers should be encouraged to believe in the efficacy of the tools.

Moreover, he says, a manager should never give in to negativity from his team. “If you hear anybody say something negative about the tools they have at the office, workplace or any other environment, counter it! Find the positives.” All in all, notes Prof. Eden, motivating workers with means efficacy is an opportunity to display good leadership.

2 people can learn to cooperate intuitively, but larger groups need to communicate

Two people can learn to cooperate with each other intuitively – without communication or any conscious intention to cooperate. But this process breaks down in groups of three or more.

A study by members of the University of Leicester’s School of Psychology and Department of Economics set out to explain how two people learn to cooperate without even knowing that they are interacting with each other. In larger groups, explicit communication is needed to coordinate actions.

“Married couples or pairs of business partners may be able to rely on this type of intuitive cooperation, to an extent, but larger groups need explicit communication and planning. Mechanisms need to be put in place to facilitate it. Intuitive cooperation is really a case of two’s company, but three’s a crowd.”

Personality and exercise levels may be linked

The article reviews a wide range of recent research into these questions and concludes that there is now enough evidence to suggest a link between an individual’s personality and the rate of its metabolism – the chemical process that converts food into the energy that fuels the body.

“Recent research suggests that this behavior might be related to an individual’s capacity to generate energy – its ‘metabolic capacity’.For example, mice in isolation that have high metabolism tend spend more time on running wheels, and run faster, than those with low metabolism.

Metabolism and aggression are also linked. It has now been documented, for example, in several species of fish and birds that individuals with high metabolism tend to be more aggressive and dominant over those with slow metabolism.

The amount of energy devoted to energetically demanding activities differs among individuals, Dr Biro says. These differences in energetic capacity – along with the tendency for metabolism to be consistent over long periods – might provide a very general explanation for personality in animals.

“It may just be that some individuals generate much more energy than others and when those individuals are captive with abundant food, they must outlet ‘excess’ energy that is normally expressed in nature in activities such as feeding and defense of food supplies.

“We are still some ways from a really solid understanding of the links between metabolism and personality in animals, but recent research suggests these ideas have merit and are worth studying further.”

Friends share personal details to strengthen relationships in United States, but not in Japan

To test this idea, Schug recruited university students in both Japan and the United States to answer questions about their relationships. They indicated how likely they would be to tell either their closest friend or a family member about their biggest secret, their most embarrassing experience, and so on. They also described how the relationships around them work-for example, how much they think that people in their neighborhood, workplace, or other environment can voluntarily choose who they interact with. In another experiment, volunteers also shared the number of new friends and acquaintances they had formed in the previous three months.

Schug wrote the study with Masaki Yuki of Hokkaido University and William Maddux of INSEAD. The work is published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

Schug and her colleagues found that Japanese people were indeed more likely to feel that relationships were stable and because of this, were less likely to share so much information with their closest friend. However, Americans shared more information with friends than the Japanese because they saw their relationships as more fragile and shifting more often, thus requiring more maintenance via self-disclosure. Schug says the study presents an interesting paradox: Although the United States is a more individualistic country than collectivist Japan, investing in relationships may actually pay higher dividends in cultures that place an emphasis on the individual.

Note the last statement again…

source: brain mysteries

Need a study break to refresh? Maybe not

It could happen to students cramming for exams, people working long hours or just about anyone burning the candle at both ends: Something tells you to take a break. Watch some TV. Have a candy bar. Goof off, tune out for a bit and come back to the task at hand when you’re feeling better. After all, you’re physically exhausted.

But a new study from Stanford psychologists suggests the urge to refresh (or just procrastinate) is – well – all in your head.

In a paper published this week in Psychological Science, the researchers challenge a long-held theory that willpower – defined as the ability to resist temptation and stay focused on a demanding task – is a limited resource. Scientists have argued that when willpower is drained, the only way to restore it is by recharging our bodies with rest, food or some other physical distraction that takes you away from whatever is burning you out.

Not so, says the Stanford team. Instead, they’ve found that a person’s mindset and personal beliefs about willpower determine how long and how well they’ll be able to work on a tough mental exercise.

“If you think of willpower as something that’s biologically limited, you’re more likely to be tired when you perform a difficult task,” said Veronika Job, the paper’s lead author. “But if you think of willpower as something that is not easily depleted, you can go on and on.”

from – brain mysteries

Brain cell communication: Why it’s so fast!?!?

The brain uses biochemical signal molecules

Nowadays the biochemical language of the nerve cells is the subject of intensive research right down at the molecular level, and for the first time researchers, some from the University of Copenhagen, have described just how nerve cells are capable of transmitting signals practically simultaneously.

The cells of the nervous system communicate using small molecule neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin and noradrenalin. Dopamine is associated with cognitive functions such as memory, serotonin with mood control, and noradrenaline with attention and arousal.

The brain cell communication network, the synapses, transmit messages via chemical neurotransmitters packaged in small containers (vesicles) waiting at the nerve ends of the synapses. An electrical signal causes the containers and membrane to fuse and the neurotransmitters flow from the nerve ending to be captured by other nerve cells. This occurs with immense rapidity in a faction of a millisecond.

The vesicle uses three copies of the “linking bridge”

Researchers from the Universities of Copenhagen, Göttingen and Amsterdam have been studying the complex organic protein complexes that link vesicles and membrane prior to fusion, in order to find an explanation for the rapidity of these transmissions. They have discovered that the vesicle contains no fewer than three copies of the linking bridge or “SNARE complex”.

With only one SNARE complex the vesicle takes longer to fuse with the membrane and the neurotransmitter is therefore secreted more slowly.

– “The precursors for the SNARE complexes are present in the vesicles before they reach the target membrane”, Professor Jakob Balsev Sørensen from the Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology at the University of Copenhagen. “Fast (synchronous) fusion is enabled when at least three of them work in tandem. If the vesicle only has one SNARE complex it can still fuse with the target membrane, but it takes much longer.”

– “Our next step will be to investigate the factors that influence and regulate the number of SNARE complexes in the vesicles. Is this a way for the nerve cells to choose to communicate more or less rapidly, and is this regulation altered when the brain is diseased?”, professor Sørensen says.

Inner voice plays role in self control

Talking to yourself might not be a bad thing, especially when it comes to exercising self control.

“We give ourselves messages all the time with the intent of controlling ourselves – whether that’s telling ourselves to keep running when we’re tired, to stop eating even though we want one more slice of cake, or to refrain from blowing up on someone in an argument,” says Alexa Tullett, PhD Candidate and lead author on the study. “We wanted to find out whether talking to ourselves in this ‘inner voice’ actually helps.”

Tullett and Associate Psychology Professor Michael Inzlicht, both at UTSC, performed a series of self control tests on participants. In one example, participants performed a test on a computer. If they saw a particular symbol appear on the screen, they were told to press a button. If they saw a different symbol, they were told to refrain from pushing the button. The test measures self control because there are more “press” than “don’t press” trials, making pressing the button an impulsive response.

The team then included measures to block participants from using their “inner voice” while performing the test, to see if it had an impact on their ability to perform. In order to block their “inner voice,” participants were told to repeat one word over and over as they performed the test. This prevented them from talking to themselves while doing the test.

“Through a series of tests, we found that people acted more impulsively when they couldn’t use their inner voice or talk themselves through the tasks,” says Inzlicht. “Without being able to verbalize messages to themselves, they were not able to exercise the same amount of self control as when they could talk themselves through the process.”

“It’s always been known that people have internal dialogues with themselves, but until now, we’ve never known what an important function they serve,” says Tullett. “This study shows that talking to ourselves in this ‘inner voice’ actually helps us exercise self control and prevents us from making impulsive decisions.”

source:brainmysteries

sarvagasana – One Yoga position with so many benefits

Slowly raise the legs. Lift the trunk, hips, and legs quite vertically. Support the back with the two hands, one on either side. Rest the elbows on the ground. Press the chin against the chest (Jalandhara Bandha). Allow the back-shoulder portion and neck to touch the ground closely. Do not allow the body to shake or move to and fro. Keep the legs straight. When the Asana is over, bring the legs down very, very slowly with elegance and not with any jerks.

This is a panacea, a cure-all, a sovereign specific for all diseases. It brightens the psychic faculties and awakens Kundalini Sakti, removes all sorts of diseases of intestine and stomach, and augments the mental power.

It supplies a large quantity of blood to the roots of spinal nerves. It is this Asana which centralises the blood in the spinal column and nourishes it beautifully. But for this Asana there is no scope for these nerve-roots to draw sufficient blood-supply. It keeps the spine quite elastic. Elasticity of the spine means everlasting youth. It stimulates you in your work. It prevents the spine from early ossification (hardening). So you will preserve and retain your youth for a long time. It helps a lot in maintaining Brahmacharya. Like Sirshasana, it makes you an Oordhvaretas. It checks wet-dreams effectively. It rejuvenates those who have lost their potency. It acts as a powerful blood-tonic and purifier. It tones the nerves and awakens Kundalini. Spinal column is rendered very soft and elastic. This Asana prevents the early ossification of the vertebral bones. Ossification is quick degeneration of bones. Old age manifests quickly on account of early ossification. The bones become hard and brittle in the degenerative process. He who practises Sarvangasana is very nimble, agile, full of energy. The muscles of the back are alternately contracted, relaxed and then pulled and stretched. Hence they draw a good supply of blood by these various movements and are well nourished. Various sorts of myalgia (muscular rheumatism), lumbago, sprain, neuralgia, etc., are cured by this Asana.

The vertebral column becomes as soft and elastic as rubber. It is twisted and rolled as it were like a piece of canvas sheet. A man who practises this Asana can never become lazy even a bit. He is a two-legged talking squirrel. The vertebral column is a very important structure. It supports the whole body. It contains the spinal cord, spinal nerve and sympathetic system. In Hatha Yoga the spine is termed as Meru Danda. Therefore you must keep it healthy, strong and elastic. The muscles of the abdomen, the rectic muscles and the muscles of the thigh are also toned and nourished well. Obesity or corpulence and habitual chronic constipation, Gulma, congestion and enlargement of the liver and spleen are cured by this Asana.

Source : yoga-age

Research says reading Arabic isn’t easy

The brain’s right hemisphere is not involved in the initial processes of reading in Arabic, due to the graphic complexity of Arabic script. Therefore reading acquisition in Arabic is much harder in comparison to English. This has been shown in a series of studies that were carried out at the Department of Psychology and the Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities at the University of Haifa. These studies have been published in the prestigious journal Neuropsychology.

Over the past ten years, much data has indicated that reading acquisition in Arabic is slower and harder than in other languages. The series of studies, carried out by Prof. Zohar Eviatar and Dr. Raphiq Ibrahim, examined the assumption that this difficulty is due to the visual complexity of the written Arabic system. The researchers explain that Arabic has a number of very similar graphic symbols representing different letters and sounds, distinguished only by very slight differences such as lines or dots, as well as sounds that are represented by a variety of different symbols. The results have revealed that the right brain is involved in the reading process for English and Hebrew, but not for Arabic.

“This means that children acquiring languages other than Arabic draw on the use of both hemispheres in the first stages of learning to read, while children learning to read Arabic do not have the participation of the right brain. Hence, it may be the case that reading processes take longer to be automatized in Arabic. The native Arabic-speaking child is faced with more of a challenge, requiring more practice and particular pedagogic effort – which demonstrates the need for systematic professional involvement in the teaching of Arabic reading, especially for those who have learning difficulties,” the researchers concluded.

source : brain mysteries